1 A review of additive manufacturing of Mg-based alloys and composite implants https://jourcc.com/index.php/jourcc/article/view/jcc317 10.52547/jcc.3.1.7 20.1001.1.26765837.2021.3.6.7.0 1 Magnesium based materials are considered promising biodegradable metals for orthopedic bone implant applications as they exhibit similar density and elastic modulus to that of bone, biodegradability, and excellent osteogenic properties. The use of Mg based biomaterials eliminates the limitations of currently used implant materials such as stress shielding and the need for the second surgery. Recently, the development of Mg-based implants has attracted significant attention. Additive manufacturing is one of the effective techniques to develop Mg based implants. Additive manufacturing which could be named 3D printing is a transformative and rapid method of producing industrial parts with in the acceptable dimensional range. Therefore, recent investigations have tried to apply this method for the development of Mg-based implants. This state-of-the-art review focuses on the additive manufacturing of Mg biodegradable materials and their in-vitro corrosion and degradation, and mechanical properties. The future directions to develop Mg biodegradable materials are reported through summarization of current achievements. 71 83 Yasamin Zamani Tehran Medical Sciences Branch, Islamic Azad University (IAU) Iran yasaminzamani181@gmail.com Hadi Ghazanfari Université Laval Canada info@jourcc.com Gisou Erabi Urmia University of Medical Sciences Iran info@jourcc.com Amirhossein Moghanian Imam Khomeini International University Iran info@jourcc.com Belma Fakić University of Zenica Bosnia and Herzegovina info@jourcc.com Seyed Mohammad Hosseini University of Tehran Iran info@jourcc.com Babar Pasha Mahammod National Institute of Technology Waranga India info@jourcc.com Additive manufacturing Magnesium alloys 3D printing Composite implants Article7.pdf [1] I. Antoniac, D. Popescu, A. Zapciu, A. Antoniac, F. Miculescu, H. Moldovan, Magnesium filled polylactic acid (PLA) material for filament based 3D printing, Materials 12(5) (2019) 719. ##[2] T.Y. Kwak, J.Y. Yang, Y.B. Heo, S.J. Kim, S.Y. Kwon, W.J. Kim, D.H. Lim, Additive manufacturing of a porous titanium layer structure Ti on a Co–Cr alloy for manufacturing cement-less implants, Journal of Materials Research and Technology 10 (2021) 250-267. ##[3] J.B. Hochman, J. Kraut, K. Kazmerik, B.J. Unger, Generation of a 3D printed temporal bone model with internal fidelity and validation of the mechanical construct, Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery 150(3) (2014) 448-454. ##[4] E.K. O’Brien, D.B. Wayne, K.A. Barsness, W.C. McGaghie, J.H. Barsuk, Use of 3D printing for medical education models in transplantation medicine: a critical review, Current Transplantation Reports 3(1) (2016) 109-119. ##[5] D. Popescu, D. Laptoiu, Rapid prototyping for patient-specific surgical orthopaedics guides: A systematic literature review, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part H: Journal of Engineering in Medicine 230(6) (2016) 495-515. ##[6] D. Popescu, D. Laptoiu, R. Marinescu, I. Botezatu, Design and 3D printing customized guides for orthopaedic surgery–lessons learned, Rapid Prototyping Journal (2018). ##[7] S.L. Sing, J. An, W.Y. Yeong, F.E. Wiria, Laser and electron‐beam powder‐bed additive manufacturing of metallic implants: A review on processes, materials and designs, Journal of Orthopaedic Research 34(3) (2016) 369-385. ##[8] A. Masoudian, A. Tahaei, A. Shakiba, F. Sharifianjazi, J.A. Mohandesi, Microstruc-ture and mechanical properties of friction stir weld of dissimilar AZ31-O magnesium alloy to 6061-T6 aluminum alloy, Transactions of nonferrous metals society of China 24(5) (2014) 1317-1322. ##[9] Y. Yang, C. Lu, S. Peng, L. Shen, D. Wang, F. Qi, C. Shuai, Laser additive manufacturing of Mg-based composite with improved degradation behaviour, Virtual and Physi-cal Prototyping (2020) 1-16. ##[10] C. Wu, W. Zai, H. Man, Additive manufacturing of ZK60 magnesium alloy by selective laser melting: Parameter optimization, microstructure and bio-degradability, Materials Today Communications (2020) 101922. ##[11] D. Carluccio, C. Xu, J. Venezuela, Y. Cao, D. Kent, M. Bermingham, A.G. Demir, B. Previtali, Q. Ye, M. Dargusch, Additively manufactured iron-manganese for biodegradable porous load-bearing bone scaffold applications, Acta biomaterialia 103 (2020) 346-360. ##[12] V.S. Telang, R. Pemmada, V. Thomas, S. Ramakrishna, P. Tandon, H.S. Nanda, Harnessing Additive Manufacturing for Magnesium Based Metallic Bioimplants: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives, Current Opin-ion in Biomedical Engineering (2021) 100264. ##[13] R. Karunakaran, S. Ortgies, A. Tamayol, F. Bobaru, M.P. Sealy, Additive manufacturing of magnesium alloys, Bioactive Materials 5(1) (2020) 44-54. ##[14] M.N. Jahangir, M.A.H. Mamun, M.P. Sealy, A review of additive manufacturing of magnesium alloys, AIP Conference Proceedings, AIP Publishing LLC, 2018, p. 030026. ##[15] T. Trang, J. Zhang, J. Kim, A. Zargaran, J. Hwang, B.-C. Suh, N. Kim, Designing a magnesium alloy with high strength and high formability, Nature communications 9(1) (2018) 1-6. ##[16] A. Dehghanghadikolaei, H. Ibrahim, A. Amerinatanzi, M. Elahinia, Biodegradable magnesium alloys, Metals for Biomedical Devices, Elsevier2019, pp. 265-289. ##[17] A. Moghanian, A. Ghorbanoghli, M. Kazem-Rostami, A. Pazhouheshgar, E. Salari, M. Saghafi Yazdi, T. Alimardani, H. Jahani, F. Sharifian Jazi, M. Tahriri, Novel antibacterial Cu/Mg-substituted 58S-bioglass: Synthesis, characterization and investigation of in vitro bioactivity, International Journal of Applied Glass Science 11(4) (2020) 685-698. ##[18] B.R. Powell, P.E. Krajewski, A.A. Luo, Chapter 4 - Magnesium alloys for lightweight powertrains and automotive structures, in: P.K. Mallick (Ed.), Materials, Design and Manufacturing for Lightweight Vehicles (Second Edition), Woodhead Publishing2021, pp. 125-186. ##[19] A. Sheikhani, R. Roumina, R. Mahmudi, Hot deformation behavior of an extruded AZ31 alloy doped with rare-earth elements, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 852 (2021) 156961. ##[20] N. Sezer, Z. Evis, M. Koç, Additive manufacturing of biodegradable magnesium implants and scaffolds: Re-view of the recent advances and research trends, Journal of Magnesium and Alloys (2020). ##[21] Y. Luan, P. Mao, L. Tan, J. Sun, M. Gao, Z. Ma, Optimising the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of biodegradable Mg-2Zn-0.5Nd alloy by solution treatment, Materials Technology (2021) 1-10. ##[22] J. Huang, Y. Ren, Y. Jiang, B. Zhang, K. Yang, In vivo study of degradable magnesium and magnesium alloy as bone implant, Frontiers of Materials Science in China 1(4) (2007) 405-409. ##[23] C. Hampp, B. Ullmann, J. Reifenrath, N. Angrisani, D. Dziuba, D. Bormann, J.M. Seitz, A. Meyer‐Lindenberg, Research on the biocompatibility of the new magnesium alloy LANd442—an in vivo study in the rabbit tibia over 26 weeks, Ad-vanced Engineering Materials 14(3) (2012) B28-B37. ##[24] J. Dai, Z. Liu, B. Yu, Q. Ruan, P.K. Chu, Effects of Ti, Ni, and Dual Ti/Ni Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation on the Corrosion and Wear Properties of Magnesium Alloy, Coatings 10(4) (2020) 313. ##[25] Y. Li, C. Wen, D. Mushahary, R. Sravanthi, N. Harishankar, G. Pande, P. Hodgson, Mg–Zr–Sr alloys as biode-gradable implant materials, Acta biomaterialia 8(8) (2012) 3177-3188. ##[26] Z. Li, X. Gu, S. Lou, Y. Zheng, The development of binary Mg–Ca alloys for use as biodegradable materials within bone, Biomaterials 29(10) (2008) 1329-1344. ##[27] H.R.B. Rad, M.H. Idris, M.R.A. Kadir, S. Farahany, Microstructure analysis and corrosion behavior of biodegradable Mg–Ca implant alloys, Materials and Design 33 (2012) 88-97. ##[28] A. Ghanbari, H. Jafari, F.A. Ghasemi, Wear Behavior of Biodegradable Mg–5Zn–1Y–(0–1) Ca Magnesium Alloy in Simulated Body Fluid, Metals and Materials International 26(3) (2020) 395-407. ##[29] S. Wang, X. Zhang, J. Li, C. Liu, S. Guan, Investigation of Mg–Zn–Y–Nd alloy for potential application of biodegradable esophageal stent material, Bioactive Materials 5(1) (2020) 1-8. ##[30] M. Liu, J. Wang, S. Zhu, Y. Zhang, Y. Sun, L. Wang, S. Guan, Corrosion fatigue of the extruded Mg–Zn–Y–Nd alloy in simulated body fluid, Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 8(1) (2020) 231-240. ##[31] D. Zhao, S. Huang, F. Lu, B. Wang, L. Yang, L. Qin, K. Yang, Y. Li, W. Li, W. Wang, Vascularized bone grafting fixed by biodegradable magnesium screw for treating osteonecrosis of the femoral head, Biomaterials 81 (2016) 84-92. ##[32] F. Sharifianjazi, A. Esmaeilkha-nian, M. Moradi, A. Pakseresht, M.S. Asl, H. Karimi-Maleh, H.W. Jang, M. Shokouhimehr, R.S. Varma, Biocompatibility and mechanical properties of pigeon bone waste extracted natural nano-hydroxyapatite for bone tissue engineering, Materials Science and Engineering: B 264 (2021) 114950. ##[33] J. Wu, B. Lee, P. Saha, P. N Kumta, A feasibility study of biodegradable magnesium-aluminum-zinc-calcium-manganese (AZXM) alloys for tracheal stent application, Journal of Biomaterials Applications 33(8) (2019) 1080-1093. ##[34] X. Wei, P. Liu, S. Ma, Z. Li, X. Peng, R. Deng, Q. Zhao, Improvement on corrosion resistance and biocompability of ZK60 magnesium alloy by carboxyl ion implantation, Corrosion Science 173 (2020) 108729. ##[35] I. Gibson, D. Rosen, B. Stucker, M. Khorasani, Design for Additive Manufacturing, in: I. Gibson, D. Rosen, B. Stucker, M. Khorasani (Eds.), Additive Manufacturing Technologies, Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2021, pp. 555-607. ##[36] Z. Wang, W. Wu, G. Qian, L. Sun, X. Li, J.A. Correia, In-situ SEM investigation on fatigue behaviors of additive manu-factured Al-Si10-Mg alloy at elevated temperature, Engineering Fracture Mechanics 214 (2019) 149-163. ##[37] H. Rezaeifar, M.A. Elbestawi, On-line melt pool temperature control in L-PBF additive manufacturing, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 112(9) (2021) 2789-2804. ##[38] S.Y. Choy, C.-N. Sun, W.J. Sin, K.F. Leong, P.-C. Su, J. Wei, P. Wang, Superior energy absorption of continuously graded microlattices by electron beam additive manufacturing, Virtual and Physical Prototyping (2021) 1-15. ##[39] C. Ng, M. Savalani, H. Man, I. Gibson, Layer manufacturing of magnesium and its alloy structures for future applications, Virtual and physical prototyping 5(1) (2010) 13-19. ##[40] C. Ng, M. Savalani, M. Lau, H. Man, Microstructure and mechanical properties of selective laser melted magnesium, Applied Surface Science 257(17) (2011) 7447-7454. ##[41] L. Thijs, F. Verhaeghe, T. Craeghs, J. Van Humbeeck, J.-P. Kruth, A study of the microstructural evolution during selective laser melting of Ti–6Al–4V, Acta materialia 58(9) (2010) 3303-3312. ##[42] H. Rotaru, R. Schumacher, S.-G. Kim, C. Dinu, Selective laser melted titanium implants: a new technique for the reconstruction of extensive zygomatic complex defects, Maxillofacial plastic and reconstructive surgery 37(1) (2015) 1. ##[43] S. Merkt, A. Kleyer, A.J. Hueber, The Additive Manufacture of Patient‐tailored Finger Implants: Feasibility study: implants based on XtremeCT technique, Laser Technik Journal 11(2) (2014) 54-56. ##[44] Y. Yang, P. Wu, X. Lin, Y. Liu, H. Bian, Y. Zhou, C. Gao, C. Shuai, System development, formability quality and microstructure evolution of selective laser-melted magnesium, Virtual and Physical Prototyping 11(3) (2016) 173-181. ##[45] R. Xu, M.-C. Zhao, Y.-C. Zhao, L. Liu, C. Liu, C. Gao, C. Shuai, A. Atrens, Improved biodegradation resistance by grain refinement of novel antibacterial ZK30-Cu alloys produced via selective laser melting, Materials Letters 237 (2019) 253-257. ##[46] F. de Oliveira Campos, A.C. Araujo, A.L. Jardini Munhoz, S.G. Kapoor, The influence of additive manufacturing on the micromilling machinability of Ti6Al4V: A comparison of SLM and commercial workpieces, Journal of Manufacturing Processes 60 (2020) 299-307. ##[47] D. Yang, H. Li, S. Liu, C. Song, Y. Yang, S. Shen, J. Lu, Z. Liu, Y. Zhu, In situ capture of spatter signature of SLM process using maximum entropy double threshold image processing method based on genetic algorithm, Optics and Laser Technology 131 (2020) 106371. ##[48] T. Larimian, T. Borkar, Additive manufacturing of in situ metal matrix composites, Additive Manufacturing of Emerging Materials, Springer2019, pp. 1-28. ##[49] C. Cai, C. Radoslaw, J. Zhang, Q. Yan, S. Wen, B. Song, Y. Shi, In-situ preparation and formation of TiB/Ti-6Al-4V nanocomposite via laser additive manufacturing: microstructure evolution and tribological behavior, Powder technology 342 (2019) 73-84. ##[50] J. Wang, Y. Liu, P. Qin, S. Liang, T. Sercombe, L. Zhang, Selective laser melting of Ti–35Nb composite from elemental powder mix-ture: Microstructure, mechanical behavior and corrosion behavior, Materials Science and Engineering: A 760 (2019) 214-224. ##[51] K. Wei, X. Zeng, Z. Wang, J. Deng, M. Liu, G. Huang, X. Yuan, Selective laser melting of Mg-Zn binary alloys: Effects of Zn content on densification behavior, microstructure, and mechanical property, Materials Science and Engineering: A 756 (2019) 226-236. ##[52] T. Long, X. Zhang, Q. Huang, L. Liu, Y. Liu, J. Ren, Y. Yin, D. Wu, H. Wu, Novel Mg-based alloys by selective laser melting for biomedical applications: micro-structure evolution, microhardness and in vitro degradation behaviour, Virtual and Physical Prototyping 13(2) (2018) 71-81. ##[53] M. Esmaily, Z. Zeng, A.N. Mortazavi, A. Gullino, S. Choudhary, T. Derra, F. Benn, F. D’Elia, M. Müther, S. Thomas, A. Huang, A. Allanore, A. Kopp, N. Birbilis, A detailed microstructural and corrosion analysis of magnesium alloy WE43 manufactured by selective laser melting, Additive Manufacturing 35 (2020) 101321. ##[54] N.A. Zumdick, L. Jauer, L.C. Kersting, T.N. Kutz, J.H. Schleifenbaum, D. Zander, Additive manu-factured WE43 magnesium: A comparative study of the microstructure and mechanical properties with those of powder extruded and as-cast WE43, Materials Characterization 147 (2019) 384-397. ##[55] J. Chen, P. Wu, Q. Wang, Y. Yang, S. Peng, Y. Zhou, C. Shuai, Y. Deng, Influence of alloying treatment and rapid solidification on the degradation behavior and mechanical properties of Mg, Metals 6(11) (2016) 259. ##[56] C. Shuai, Y. Yang, S. Peng, C. Gao, P. Feng, J. Chen, Y. Liu, X. Lin, S. Yang, F. Yuan, Nd-induced honeycomb structure of intermetallic phase enhances the corrosion resistance of Mg alloys for bone implants, Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine 28(9) (2017) 130. ##[57] C.L. Wu, W. Zai, H.C. Man, Additive manufacturing of ZK60 magnesium alloy by selective laser melting: Parameter optimization, microstructure and biodegradability, Materials Today Communications 26 (2021) 101922. ##[58] C. Shuai, L. Liu, M. Zhao, P. Feng, Y. Yang, W. Guo, C. Gao, F. Yuan, Microstructure, biodegradation, antibacterial and mechanical properties of ZK60-Cu alloys prepared by selec-tive laser melting technique, Journal of Materials Science and Technology 34(10) (2018) 1944-1952. ##[59] B.R. Sunil, T.S. Kumar, U. Chakkingal, V. Nandakumar, M. Doble, Friction stir processing of magnesium–nanohydroxyapatite composites with controlled in vitro degradation behavior, Materials Science and Engineering: C 39 (2014) 315-324. ##[60] R. Del Campo, B. Savoini, A. Muñoz, M. Monge, G. Garcés, Mechanical properties and corrosion behavior of Mg–HAP composites, Journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 39 (2014) 238-246. ##[61] C. Shuai, Y. Zhou, Y. Yang, P. Feng, L. Liu, C. He, M. Zhao, S. Yang, C. Gao, P. Wu, Biodegradation resistance and bioactivity of hydroxyapatite enhanced Mg-Zn composites via selective laser melting, Materials 10(3) (2017) 307. ##[62] C. Liu, M. Zhang, C. Chen, Effect of laser processing parameters on porosity, microstructure and mechanical properties of porous Mg-Ca alloys produced by laser additive manufacturing, Materials Science and Engineering: A 703 (2017) 359-371. ##[63] X. Yao, J. Tang, Y. Zhou, A. Atrens, M.S. Dargusch, B. Wiese, T. Ebel, M. Yan, Surface modification of biomedical Mg-Ca and Mg-Zn-Ca alloys using selective laser melting: Corrosion behaviour, microhardness and biocompatibility, Journal of Magnesi-um and Alloys (2020). ##[64] S.L. Sing, W.Y. Yeong, F.E. Wiria, Selective laser melting of titanium alloy with 50 wt% tantalum: Microstructure and mechanical properties, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 660 (2016) 461-470. ##[65] R. Rahmani, M. Brojan, M. Antonov, K.G. Prashanth, Perspectives of metal-diamond composites additive manufacturing using SLM-SPS and other techniques for increased wear-impact resistance, International Journal of Refractory Metals and Hard Materials 88 (2020) 105192. ##[66] N. Putra, M. Mirzaali, I. Apachitei, J. Zhou, A. Zadpoor, Multi-material additive manufacturing technologies for Ti-, Mg-, and Fe-based biomaterials for bone substitution, Acta Biomaterialia (2020). ##[67] R. Singh, A. Gupta, O. Tripathi, S. Srivastava, B. Singh, A. Awasthi, S.K. Rajput, P. Sonia, P. Singhal, K.K. Saxena, Powder bed fusion process in additive manufacturing: An overview, Materials Today: Pro-ceedings 26 (2020) 3058-3070. ##[68] S.M.J. Razavi, B. Van Hooreweder, F. Berto, Effect of build thickness and geometry on quasi-static and fatigue behavior of Ti-6Al-4V produced by Electron Beam Melting, Additive Manufacturing 36 (2020) 101426. ##[69] J. Parthasarathy, B. Starly, S. Raman, A. Christensen, Mechanical evaluation of porous titanium (Ti6Al4V) struc-tures with electron beam melting (EBM), Journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials 3(3) (2010) 249-259. ##[70] A. Casadebaigt, J. Hugues, D. Monceau, High temperature oxidation and embrittlement at 500–600° C of Ti-6Al-4V alloy fabricated by Laser and Electron Beam Melting, Corrosion Science 175 (2020) 108875. ##[71] V. Lunetto, M. Galati, L. Settineri, L. Iuliano, Unit process energy consumption analysis and models for Electron Beam Melting (EBM): Effects of process and part designs, Additive Manufacturing 33 (2020) 101115. ##[72] M. Cronskär, M. Bäckström, L.E. Rännar, Production of customized hip stem prostheses–a comparison between conventional machining and electron beam melting (EBM), Rapid Prototyping Journal (2013). ##[73] M. Touri, F. Kabirian, M. Saadati, S. Ramakrishna, M. Mozafari, Additive manufacturing of biomaterials− the evolution of rapid prototyping, Advanced Engineering Materials 21(2) (2019) 1800511. ##[74] B.R. Luce, M. Drummond, B. Jönsson, P.J. Neumann, J.S. Schwartz, U. Siebert, S.D. Sullivan, EBM, HTA, and CER: clearing the confusion, The Milbank Quarterly 88(2) (2010) 256-276. ##[75] L.E. Rännar, A. Glad, C.G. Gustafson, Efficient cooling with tool inserts manufactured by electron beam melting, Rapid Prototyping Journal (2007). ##[76] G. Manivasagam, D. Dhinasekaran, A. Rajamanickam, Biomedical implants: corrosion and its prevention-a review, Recent patents on corrosion science (2010). ##[77] M. Radmansouri, E. Bahmani, E. Sarikhani, K. Rahmani, F. Sharifianjazi, M. Irani, Doxorubicin hydrochloride - Loaded electrospun chitosan/cobalt ferrite/titanium oxide nanofibers for hyperthermic tumor cell treatment and controlled drug release, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 116 (2018) 378-384. ##[78] B. Gao, S. Hao, J. Zou, W. Wu, G. Tu, C. Dong, Effect of high current pulsed electron beam treatment on surface microstructure and wear and corrosion resistance of an AZ91HP magnesium alloy, Surface and Coatings Technology 201(14) (2007) 6297-6303. ##[79] D. Schmid, J. Renza, M.F. Zaeh, J. Glasschroeder, Process influences on laser-beam melting of the magnesium alloy AZ91, Physics Procedia 83 (2016) 927-936. ##[80] X. Tong, D. Zhang, X. Zhang, Y. Su, Z. Shi, K. Wang, J. Lin, Y. Li, J. Lin, C. Wen, Microstructure, mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and in vitro corrosion and degradation behavior of a new Zn–5Ge alloy for biodegradable implant materials, Acta biomaterialia 82 (2018) 197-204. ##[81] M.-S. Song, R.-C. Zeng, Y.-F. Ding, R.W. Li, M. Easton, I. Cole, N. Birbilis, X.-B. Chen, Recent advances in biodegradation controls over Mg alloys for bone fracture management: a review, Journal of materials science and technology 35(4) (2019) 535-544. ##[82] E. Sharifi Sedeh, S. Mirdamadi, F. Sharifianjazi, M. Tahriri, Synthesis and Evaluation of Mechanical and Biological Properties of Scaffold Prepared From Ti and Mg With Different Volume Percent, Synthesis and Reactivity in Inorganic, Metal-Organic, and Nano-Metal Chemistry 45(7) (2015) 1087-1091. ##[83] M. Vlasea, Y. Shanjani, A. Basalah, E. Toyser-kani, Additive manufacturing of scaffolds for tissue engineering of bone and cartilage, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 13 (2011) 124-141. ##[84] R. Narayan, Fundamentals of medical implant materials, ASM handbook (2012). ##[85] L. Shi, L. Wang, Y. Duan, W. Lei, Z. Wang, J. Li, X. Fan, X. Li, S. Li, Z. Guo, The improved biological perfor-mance of a novel low elastic modulus implant, PLoS one 8(2) (2013) e55015. ##[86] L.J. Gibson, Biomechanics of cellular solids, Journal of biomechanics 38(3) (2005) 377-399. ##[87] E. Hall, Yield point phenomena in metals and alloys, Springer Science and Business Media2012. ##[88] S.L. Sing, L.P. Lam, D.Q. Zhang, Z.H. Liu, C.K. Chua, Interfacial characterization of SLM parts in multi-material processing: Intermetallic phase formation between AlSi10Mg and C18400 copper alloy, Materials Characterization 107 (2015) 220-227. ##[89] Y. Qin, P. Wen, H. Guo, D. Xia, Y. Zheng, L. Jauer, R. Poprawe, M. Voshage, J.H. Schleifenbaum, Additive manufacturing of biodegradable metals: current research status and future perspectives, Acta biomaterialia 98 (2019) 3-22. ##[90] Y. Qin, P. Wen, M. Voshage, Y. Chen, P.G. Schückler, L. Jauer, D. Xia, H. Guo, Y. Zheng, J.H. Schleifenbaum, Additive manufacturing of biodegradable Zn-xWE43 porous scaffolds: Formation quality, microstructure and mechanical properties, Materials and Design 181 (2019) 107937. ##[91] Y. Li, J. Zhou, P. Pavanram, M. Leeflang, L. Fockaert, B. Pouran, N. Tümer, K.-U. Schröder, J. Mol, H. Weinans, Additively manufactured biodegradable porous magnesium, Acta biomaterialia 67 (2018) 378-392. ##[92] F. Witte, The history of biodegradable magnesium implants: a review, Acta biomaterialia 6(5) (2010) 1680-1692. ##[93] D. Mareci, G. Bolat, J. Izquierdo, C. Crimu, C. Munteanu, I. Antoniac, R. Souto, Electrochemical characteristics of bioresorbable binary MgCa alloys in Ringer’s solution: Revealing the impact of local pH distributions during in-vitro dissolution, Materials Science and Engineering: C 60 (2016) 402-410. ##[94] P. Abasian, M. Radmansouri, M. Habibi Jouybari, M.V. Ghasemi, A. Mohammadi, M. Irani, F.S. Jazi, Incorporation of magnetic NaX zeolite/DOX into the PLA/chitosan nanofibers for sustained release of doxorubicin against carcinoma cells death in vitro, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 121 (2019) 398-406. ##[95] R. Radha, D. Sreekanth, Insight of magnesium alloys and composites for orthopedic implant applications–a review, Journal of magnesium and alloys 5(3) (2017) 286-312. ##[96] J. Kubasek, D. Dvorsky, M. Cavojsky, M. Roudnicka, D. Vojtech, WE43 magnesium alloy-material for challenging applications, Kov. Mater 57 (2019) 159-165. ##[97] J. Trinidad, I. Marco, G. Arruebarrena, J. Wendt, D. Letzig, E. Sáenz de Argandoña, R. Goodall, Processing of magnesium porous structures by infiltration casting for biomedical applications, Advanced Engineer-ing Materials 16(2) (2014) 241-247. ##[98] S. Gollapudi, Grain size distribution effects on the corrosion behaviour of materials, Corrosion Science 62 (2012) 90-94. ##[99] X. Zhao, L.-l. Shi, J. Xu, A comparison of corrosion behavior in saline environment: rare earth metals (Y, Nd, Gd, Dy) for alloying of biodegradable magnesium alloys, Journal of Materials Science and Technology 29(9) (2013) 781-787. ##[100] Z. Zhen, T.-f. Xi, Y.-f. Zheng, A review on in vitro corrosion performance test of biodegradable metallic materials, Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China 23(8) (2013) 2283-2293. ##[101] X. Niu, H. Shen, J. Fu, J. Yan, Y. Wang, Corrosion behaviour of laser powder bed fused bulk pure magnesium in hank’s solution, Corrosion Science 157 (2019) 284-294. ##[102] G. Argade, S. Panigrahi, R. Mishra, Effects of grain size on the corrosion resistance of wrought magnesium alloys containing neodymium, Corrosion Science 58 (2012) 145-151. ##[103] J. Zhang, B. Song, Q. Wei, D. Bourell, Y. Shi, A review of selective laser melting of aluminum alloys: Processing, microstructure, property and developing trends, Journal of Materials Science and Technology 35(2) (2019) 270-284. ##[104] B. Xie, M.-C. Zhao, Y.-C. Zhao, Y. Tian, D. Yin, C. Gao, C. Shuai, A. Atrens, Effect of Alloying Mn by Selective Laser Melting on the Microstructure and Biodegradation Properties of Pure Mg, Metals 10(11) (2020) 1527. ##[105] C. Shuai, Y. Yang, P. Wu, X. Lin, Y. Liu, Y. Zhou, P. Feng, X. Liu, S. Peng, Laser rapid solidification improves corrosion behavior of Mg-Zn-Zr alloy, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 691 (2017) 961-969. ##[106] R. K.R, S. Bontha, R. M.R, M. Das, V.K. Balla, Laser surface melting of Mg-Zn-Dy alloy for better wettability and corrosion resistance for biodegradable implant applications, Applied Surface Science 480 (2019) 70-82. ##[107] M. Gieseke, C. Noelke, S. Kaierle, V. Wesling, H. Haferkamp, Selective laser melting of magnesium and magnesium alloys, Magnesium Technology 2013, Spring-er2013, pp. 65-68. ##[108] C. Shuai, Y. Cheng, Y. Yang, S. Peng, W. Yang, F. Qi, Laser additive manufacturing of Zn-2Al part for bone repair: Formability, microstructure and properties, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 798 (2019) 606-615. ##[109] Y. Yang, X. Guo, C. He, C. Gao, C. Shuai, Regulating degradation behavior by incorporating mesoporous silica for Mg bone implants, ACS Biomaterials Science and Engineering 4(3) (2018) 1046-1054. ##[110] M.M. Saleh, A. Touny, M.A. Al-Omair, M. Saleh, Biodegradable/biocompatible coated metal implants for orthopedic applications, Bio-medical materials and engineering 27(1) (2016) 87-99. ##[111] Y. Ding, C. Wen, P. Hodgson, Y. Li, Effects of alloying elements on the corrosion behavior and biocompatibility of biodegradable magnesium alloys: a review, Journal of materials chemistry B 2(14) (2014) 1912-1933. ##[112] K. Munir, J. Lin, C. Wen, P.F. Wright, Y. Li, Mechan-ical, corrosion, and biocompatibility properties of Mg-Zr-Sr-Sc alloys for biodegradable implant applications, Acta biomaterialia 102 (2020) 493-507. ##[113] M. Rahman, N.K. Dutta, N. Roy Choudhury, Magnesium Alloys With Tunable Interfaces as Bone Implant Materials, Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology 8 (2020) 564. ##[114] A.H.M. Sanchez, B.J. Luthringer, F. Feyerabend, R. Willumeit, Mg and Mg alloys: how comparable are in vitro and in vivo corrosion rates? A review, Acta biomaterialia 13 (2015) 16-31. ##[115] C. Xiao, L. Wang, Y. Ren, S. Sun, E. Zhang, C. Yan, Q. Liu, X. Sun, F. Shou, J. Duan, Indirectly extruded biodegradable Zn-0.05 wt% Mg alloy with improved strength and ductility: In vitro and in vivo studies, Journal of materials science and technology 34(9) (2018) 1618-1627. ##[116] L. Murr, Metallurgy principles applied to powder bed fusion 3D printing/additive manufacturing of personalized and optimized metal and alloy biomedical implants: An overview, Journal of Materials Research and Technology 9(1) (2020) 1087-1103. ##[117] M. Farag, H.-s. Yun, Effect of gelatin addition on fabrication of magnesium phosphate-based scaffolds prepared by additive manufacturing system, Materials Letters 132 (2014) 111-115. ##[118] M. Castilho, M. Dias, U. Gbureck, J. Groll, P. Fernandes, I. Pires, B. Gouveia, J. Rodrigues, E. Vorndran, Fabrication of computationally designed scaffolds by low temperature 3D printing, Biofabrication 5(3) (2013) 035012. ##[119] Y. Yin, Q. Huang, L. Liang, X. Hu, T. Liu, Y. Weng, T. Long, Y. Liu, Q. Li, S. Zhou, In vitro degradation behavior and cytocompatibility of ZK30/bioactive glass composites fabricated by selective laser melting for biomedical applications, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 785 (2019) 38-45. ##[120] F. Sharifianjazi, N. Parvin, M. Tahriri, Synthesis and characteristics of sol-gel bioactive SiO2-P2O5-CaO-Ag2O glasses, Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 476 (2017) 108-113. ##[121] F. Bär, L. Berger, L. Jauer, G. Kurtuldu, R. Schäublin, J.H. Schleifenbaum, J.F. Löffler, Laser additive manufacturing of biodegradable magnesium alloy WE43: A detailed microstructure analysis, Acta Biomaterialia 98 (2019) 36-49. ##[122] A.C. Hänzi, P. Gunde, M. Schinhammer, P.J. Uggowitzer, On the biodegradation performance of an Mg–Y–RE alloy with various surface conditions in simulated body fluid, Acta biomateri-alia 5(1) (2009) 162-171. ##[123] C. Gao, S. Li, L. Liu, S. Bin, Y. Yang, S. Peng, C. Shuai, Dual alloying improves the corrosion resistance of biodegradable Mg alloys prepared by selective laser melting, Journal of Magnesium and Alloys (2020). ##[124] M. Li, F. Benn, T. Derra, N. Kröger, M. Zinser, R. Smeets, J.M. Molina-Aldareguia, A. Kopp, J. Llorca, Microstructure, me-chanical properties, corrosion resistance and cytocompatibility of WE43 Mg alloy scaffolds fabricated by laser powder bed fusion for biomedical applications, Materials Science and Engi-neering: C 119 (2021) 111623. ##[125] C. Shuai, S. Li, C. Gao, Y. Yang, Z. Zhao, W. Liu, Y. Hu, Supersaturated Solid Solution of Mg in Fe Produced by Mechanical Alloying Followed by Selective Laser Melting (SLM) to Accelerate Degradation for Biomedical Applications, Lasers in Engineering (Old City Publishing) 47 (2020). ##[126] G.K. Meenashisundaram, N. Wang, S. Maskomani, S. Lu, S.K. Anantharajan, S.T. Dheen, S.M.L. Nai, J.Y.H. Fuh, J. Wei, Fabrication of Ti + Mg composites by three-dimensional printing of porous Ti and subsequent pressure-less infiltration of biodegradable Mg, Materials Science and Engineering: C 108 (2020) 110478. ##[127] B. Ghotbi, S. Navkhasi, S. Ghobadi, Z. Shahsavari, N. Kahrizi, A Review of the Novel Corona Virus Disease (2019-nCoV), Health Research Journal 5(3) (2020) 180-187. ##[128] M. Salehi, S. Maleksaeedi, M.A.B. Sapari, M.L.S. Nai, G.K. Meenashisundaram, M. Gupta, Additive manufacturing of magnesium–zinc–zirconium (ZK) alloys via capillary-mediated binderless three-dimensional printing, Materials and Design 169 (2019) 107683. ##[129] S. Liu, W. Yang, X. Shi, B. Li, S. Duan, H. Guo, J. Guo, Influence of laser process parameters on the densification, microstructure, and mechanical properties of a selective laser melted AZ61 magne-sium alloy, Journal of Alloys and Compounds 808 (2019) 151160. ##[130] N. Wegner, D. Kotzem, Y. Wessarges, N. Emminghaus, C. Hoff, J. Tenkamp, J. Hermsdorf, L. Overmeyer, F. Walther, Corrosion and Corrosion Fatigue Properties of Additively Manufactured Magnesium Alloy WE43 in Comparison to Titanium Alloy Ti-6Al-4V in Physiological Environment, Materials 12(18) (2019) 2892.